Civil liberties, habeas corpus and war on terror

Introduction Habeas corpus is one of the legal principles, which constitute the foundation of law in America. The principle enables an individual to challenge detention. This is a vital principle in law whose application has largely depended on regimes, the governance approach and security challenges that a government encounters.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Civil liberties, habeas corpus and war on terror specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Various regimes have applied the principle in different ways (Halliday, 2011). The variation in the application has been controversial with the onset of war on terror (WON). Legal hurdles have impaired WON as regimes seek to hold enemy combatants without any trial. However, the presence of this clause limits the ability of authorities to detain suspects without initiating hearings (Fiss, 2006). The congress and the president have the capacity to lift the right to hab eas corpus. The application of this right is largely dependent on the security challenges that a regime encounters. As such, the suspension of habeas corpus depends on the security challenges that a government is encountering. Definition of habeas corpus With reference to the American constitution, habeas corpus is a vital principle of freedom. The terminology means ‘to avail the body’ in Latin. Consequently, it enables individuals to access freedom from detention without any trial. The American constitution affords its citizenry with the right to plea to this legal clause. In such cases, the American government has to answer to the court. The government has to provide concrete reasons for holding a person. Subsequently, the court determines whether the reasons provided are adequate to allow the wavering of this fundamental right. Habeas corpus in America is much similar to the corresponding law in England. The American law emanated from the English statutes. However, t here are numerous adjustments in the respective nations to suit their circumstances. There are certain reasons that lead to lifting of this right. They include rebellion and protection of public safety. Over years, the application of habeas corpus has changed with countless infringements by authorities (Hafetez, 2011). War on terror The WON has culminated in controversy owing to the government’s detention of civilians believed to be enemy combatants. The application of this vital principle has been violated by subsequent regimes as they seek to detain combatants. The challenge that the government encounters is the prosecution of the alleged combatants in civilian court. As such, the terror charges would not stand before judges and most of the combatants would be set free.Advertising Looking for research paper on government? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More To prevent this, the government regards enemy combatants as terro rists. This enables the authority to detain such suspects despite the illegality of such detentions. The Bush administration encountered numerous challenges as it was holding suspected criminals without trial. Owing to this challenge, the Bush regime could not effectively execute its strategies during the WOT. Subsequently, it sought to build a holding camp in a place where the American constitution had no jurisdiction. Guantanamo bay was constructed on land leased from the Cuban authority. As such, the American constitution had no jurisdiction. The government held terror suspects on the island without any trial. The right to habeas corpus was not applicable on this detention camp (Fiss, 2006). Cases challenging detention The action to hold detainees in Guantanamo was challenged severally. In Boumediene v. Bush, the court ruled that Boumediene, a Bosnia and Herzegovina national had the right to plead to habeas corpus. Consequently, his detention was illegal. The court decision culmi nated from 5-4 majority in the ruling. The application of insular cases meant that the American constitution had jurisdiction in Guantanamo since America had complete authority and control over the territory. The decision by the Supreme Court resulted in subsequent cases pertaining to this right. Other suspects sought to plead to this right (Cornell University Law School 2007). However, their efforts were curtailed by legislation. In subsequent cases pertaining to detainees held in the Guantanamo camp, the court ruled that the detention was illegal. Consequently, the government solved the impending crisis by establishing the Combatants status review tribunal. The detainees held in the camp were to face a military commission since the government ruled out trials in civilian courts (Cornell University Law School 2007). Courts’ role in the implementation of habeas corpus In light of the above cases, the court exercised absolute authority on the ability of any detainee to plead t o this habeas corpus. The jurisdiction of the court limited the ability of the defence department to breach this right. However, to some extent the president prevailed since the detainees did not receive the right to prosecution in a civilian court. If the proceeding were in civilian courts, most of the detainees would be set free. This would hinder the WOT since the civilian courts would set free such detainees. The government viewed the prosecution of enemy combatants in civilian courts as counterproductive (Hephaestus Books 2011).Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Civil liberties, habeas corpus and war on terror specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Previous incidences of suspension habeas corpus’ The Congress and the president can exercise their authority and limit the right to plea to this right. President Lincoln did so during the civil war when part of America was under enemy forces. The suspensi on of this rights resulted in the establishment of military courts to deal with the rebels that wanted to seize the capital. However, Lincoln faced an aggressive senate once it resumed from recess. The high court in Maryland overturned Lincoln decision pertaining to the right of habeas corpus. However, the president assumed the court’s decision and continued to suspend this right with regard to combatants. Once the senate resumed it passed legislation approving the president’s action. The president’s actions were necessary since American was encountering a rebellion. According to Sir William Blackstone, one of the lords that were pivotal in the creation of this principle the King had to know of any retrains on his subjects. Once the English legal system was fully operation, the legal statues provided that the right could only be waived during a rebellion or an invasion. This is much similar to what the legal statutes in America provide. Similarly, during the Sec ond World War the president could suspend habeas corpus. However, the court limited the suspension of this right to only crimes that relate to war only. If habeas corpus was suspended, the applicable law only applied to crimes pertaining to invasion, enemy combatants and rebellions. In the above scenario, the courts also limited the suspension of this right. This limits the misuse of the suspension of habeas corpus (Fiss, 2006). Congress and the president The congress being the ultimate legislative body has the capability to determine various aspects of habeas corpus. The congress has enacted laws, which determines the application of habeas corpus. Evidently, alterations to this right mainly result from the security challenges that the nation is encountering. The alterations have sought to approve measures to detain combatants or suspects who threaten the safety of America. The congress first altered the right to habeas corpus was during the Lincoln era, when the president suspended this right as the senate was in recess. Despite confrontations in congress, senators ratified the president’s executive order to suspend habeas corpus. The second situation, which required the suspension of habeas corpus, was during World War II (Chemerisnky, 1987). Legal changes owing to WON The Oklahoma and twin towers attacks are other security challenges that have culminated in the suspension of this right. The latter resulted in massive legal changes to deal with terror. However, alterations have encountered challenges if they infringe on the constitutional rights of a person.Advertising Looking for research paper on government? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The 2001 presidential military order sanctioned detention of individuals believed to partake in terrorist activities without any legal proceedings to prove their innocence. Legal scholars were opposed to such an order since it violated habeas corpus. Despite the approval of detention based on terrorist suspicions, the Supreme Court proved the supremacy of the rights entrenched in the constitution through various rulings such as Hamdi v Rumsfield. Cases such Boumediene v. Bush and Hamdi v. Rumsfield had dissenting justices. However, it was vital that the court observed the constitution. This is because habeas corpus is a basic right for any person restrained by American authorities. Consequently, suspending it without providing a detainee with a chance at justices breaches the basic rights entrenched in the constitution. Unlike in previous scenarios where the legal system shied away from upholding the law when the executive contravenes it, the court emerged as an independent organ of governance by terming the detentions unlawful (Perkins, 2004). Personal views on habeas corpus Habeas corpus is a key right in any free society. As such, it is vital to uphold it. Despite the complex security challenges that this nation encounters, it is paramount to ensure that all detainees have access to a legal process where they can prove their innocence. Terrorist charges should not be a basis to detain an individual without any legal procedure to try the suspect. Terror poses a massive challenge to this society. Subsequently, on the determination of the involvement of a suspect in such activities, the suspect should face appropriate legal process. Where the suspect is extremely dangerous specialized trial procedures should apply. These include military commissions and tribunals. The constitution of such tribunals should have civilian legal representatives who should ensure that the basic rights of a defendant are upheld. The president and the congress should also exercise ca ution in suspending habeas corpus since it breaches the basic rights in our constitution (Hephaestus Books, 2011). Conclusion In instances where the government suspends habeas corpus, it seeks to address certain security challenges. The details above exemplify the above assertion fully from the Lincoln regime to the Bush era. However, suspension of such a right has encountered legal challenges from courts, which have either outlawed or limited the suspension of this right. Courts undertake a vital role in ensuring that all detainees can challenge their arrest in a court or an appropriate legal system to suit their circumstance. The congress and the president have emerged as key figures in the implementation of this right with the initial passing bills to influence its application. Conversely, the latter issues executive orders to suspend habeas corpus which congress can ratify to ensure legality. Suspension of habeas corpus has exclusively pertained to individuals that pose a signif icant threat to the security of this nation. Conclusively, the suspension of habeas corpus pertains entirely to the security challenges that this nation is encountering. References Chemerisnky, E. (1987). Thinking about habeas corpus. Law Review, 37:748-789. Cornell University Law School. (2007). Boumediene et al. v. Bush, president of the United States, et al. Retrieved from https://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/06-1195.ZS.html Fiss, O. (2006) The War Against Terrorism and the Rule of Law. Oxford Journal ofLegal Studies, 26 (2): 235-256. Hafetez, J. (2011). Habeas Corpus and the â€Å"War on Terror. Retrieved from https://www.acslaw.org/ Halliday, P. (2011). Habeas Corpus: From England to Empire. USA: Congress Publication. Hephaestus Books. (2011). Articles on Global War on Terror Captives’ Habeas Corpus Petitions, Including. Virginia: Hephaestus Books. Perkins, J. (2004). Habeas Corpus in the war against terrorism: Hamdi v. Rumsfeldand Citizen Enemy Combatants. Hein Onlin e publication, 19: 437-460. This research paper on Civil liberties, habeas corpus and war on terror was written and submitted by user Daphne Rush to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Early Arkansas Natives and Migrations essays

Early Arkansas Natives and Migrations essays Arkansas and the southwest, January 31, 2003 The Mound builders of the Mississippian Culture The first human inhabitants of Arkansas and North America were the paleo Indians, right after the last ice age disappeared. Survived by hunting the mastodon, saber toothed tigers. Where they came from? The few skeletal remains suggest that they were Caucasoid, were more related to the white races. Some same that they can be related to the Ainu people of Japan. The paleo Indians could have been related to the Ainu people. A great controversy still exists on where the paleo Indians originated. The weapons and tool technology changed between 9 thousand and 8 thousand years ago. Some native Americans today may have paleo Indian genes in their markup today. Their existence ceased to be evident about 8000 yrs ago. The next group of human inhabitants were the Archaic Indians. 8000bc to 1000bc. Definitely Mongolian tribes or bloodlines. On the other hand, they shared cultural traits as the paleo Indians. They were hunter gatherer people. They lived all over Arkansas, we can infer what we know about them come form artifacts that come from bluffs in northern Arkansas. Bluff Dwellers in the Arkansas Ozarks. Fortunately, many articles survived because they lived in sheltered bluffs, . many people have found many artifacts, toward the 19th century. Many investigations were made, and we have many archaic Indian articles from their culture. These give us some information about the archaic Indians way of life. They had no system of writing, or surviving documents to say definitely what their religious beliefs were, afterlife, what was their political organization? No historical records to draw on. It is clear they were hunter gatherer Indians. The archaic Indians had not yet developed the bow. They were hunting deer and elk, and other game that was prevalent. T ...

International Marketing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words - 4

International Marketing - Essay Example The company acquired Land Rover in the year 2000 from BMW and Jaguar cars in the year 1989. Presently the company is employing more than 25000 employees. Net income of the company is ? 1.215 billion. The next portion of the study has been divided into two sections. The first section will deal with the discussion of the marketing mix for the Evoque product of Jaguar Land Rover for targeting the low end customers at the entry level. The second section deals with discussing the marketing mix of the premium Evoque product in order to target the high end customers for competing with the products like BMW X3, Audi Q5 etc. Marketing Mix of Evoque Cars of Jaguar Land Rover Marketing Mix is considered as one of the most important business tools which help in determining the four P’s involved in the planning of marketing strategy. The four P’s include Product, Price, Place and Promotions. This marketing mix will help in providing set of policies on the basis of mentioned four Pâ €™s so that it can act as an essential marketing strategy for influencing the purchase decision of the customers. The main reason behind any business’s success includes a long procedure in which achieving success depends upon marketing. The success linked to marketing depends upon different marketing strategies and all these marketing strategies include 4 P’s of marketing. The marketing mix of Evoque vehicles of Jaguar Land Rover will provide the best possible way of mentioning all the essential elements in marketing. The implementation of marketing strategies in an appropriate manner is important for the achievement of success in the operational market. The marketing mix will give the combination of various important marketing strategies planned by Jaguar Land Rover (Belohlavek, 2008). Each of the four P’s is important for planning such a marketing mix, which would be able to attract the customers easily towards the organization. It will help in determining the profit potential of Jaguar Land Rover meant for separate target segments. a) Marketing mix for targeting low end of the market Product Product means those goods or services which are provided to customers by the organizations. There are different elements connected to the products which help in attracting the customers (Masterson and Pickton, 2010; Hobbs, 2011). The Range Rover Evoque has brought sensational design to the world’s leading marques. The excellent power train technology along with the compact foot prints help in delivering high performance along with reduced carbon dioxide emissions and fuel consumption as compared to any other Range Rover model (Jaguar Land Rover, 2013b). The products are styled with such desirability which cannot be matched by any rival. The Evoque provides various facilities like accurate and fast steering. The ride is such that it possesses the capability of absorbing the imperfections present in the road surface. The vehicles are perfec t while exploring the city by means of power, high performance and excellent design at the finger tips. There are unique models, all present in 5 door version: Prestige, Pure and Dynamic. Only Dynamic is present in the Coupe Version. Customer research is known as one of the key elements in developing or planning the most effective marketing mix. The knowledge of an

Transition Of Corporate Power And How It Effect Fashion Industry Assignment

Transition Of Corporate Power And How It Effect Fashion Industry - Assignment Example The paper "Transition Of Corporate Power And How It Effect Fashion Industry" discusses Transition Of Corporate Power And How It Effect Fashion Industry. In the fashion sector, the corporate should be focusing on the governance so that they maximize residuals and in thecases of investor-owned firms, theyhave to make a pro datadistribution to theshareholders. The pro-data distribution allows accountability when it comes to government subsidies and the role of labor laws and community interest. An example of a transition of corporate power in thefashionindustry is China. China is one of the largest consumers of textile with its population of 400 million, giving a high demand for textile. In the past, the fashion industry has faced problems starting from insufficient raw materials and inadequate technology. In 1950, the Chinese government started it five-year plan with the construction of cotton mills, printing and dyeing plants. The plan was not only meeting the demands of the growing p opulation but also to provide employment. The government solely embarked on the production, structure and distribution. It however failed to meet the requirements of its population, so the government introduced a modernized method of the open policy. Therefore, allowed foreign direct investors to do businesses in China. It also enabled China to renovate its outdated industry rapidly and also make new economic ties with other countries. The result was a transformation of the intermediate products like thread.

TERRORIST TRAINING Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

TERRORIST TRAINING - Research Paper Example Over the years, numerous worldwide campaigns have been launched with the aim of fighting terrorism. Terrorist training has been continuously propagated by extremists such as Osama bin Laden and Ayman al-Zawahiri. They are said to be the leadership and minds behind Taliban and Al Qaeda. These terror groups expanded their terror activities by establishing terror training camps in Afghanistan and other regions of the world. Terror training can be blamed for the deadly terror attacks that have been carried out in Europe, USA and other regions of the world. One of the most common of these terror attacks include the 9/11 attacks in the USA. The main aim of this paper is to help readers to understand the way in which terrorist training and recruitment has shifted, changed and evolved over the past decade. Terrorist Training Although there are many issues that define the way in which the world seeks to counteract or avert terrorism, one of the primal means by which governments can seek to di srupt terrorism is by seeking to interfere or stymie the means by which terrorist groups train and/or recruit new members. Ultimately, nations such as the United States have made it a primary goal of its intelligence and/or military to seek to disrupt or destroy terrorist training facilities and capabilities at each and every juncture. In such a way, many analysts have noted that this process in and of itself is more effective in helping to stem the tide of terrorism than targeted assassinations of high ranking terrorists. Nonetheless, when performed in tandem with other actions, seeking to disrupt and destroy terrorist training capabilities comes to be seen as an effective tool in the arsenal of counter terrorism agencies and governments the world over. As a result of the relatively high level of success that the United States and other nations have experienced with regards to depriving these entities of their training capabilities, groups such as Al Qaeda and others have been forc ed to integrate with new dynamics. As such, these new dynamics in terrorist training will be the primal thrust and unit of analysis within this brief research paper. In seeking to understand the way in which terrorist training and recruitment has shifted over the past decade, the reader can come to a more appreciable level of understanding with regards to how these entities continue to be represented within the world. Looking back but a few short years, the reader can note that a far different system existed as compared to what is evidenced now. Taking Al Qaeda as the case in question, it can be noted that there existed defined and extant philosophy of integration with regards to the way in which training facilities existed in and around the globe. What is meant by this is that Al Qaeda operated a litany of different physical training facilities in far flung reaches of the globe to include Somalia, Afghanistan, Sudan, the Philippines and others. Up until the attacks of September 11t h, 2001, these training bases served as the backbone by which newly recruited warriors would learn the basics of how to engage in Al Qaeda’s definition of jihad. It should be understood at this particular juncture that although Al Qaeda represents one of the most salient threats and perhaps one of the best known terrorist entities within the world today, it should not be understood that this group alone

Virus-host Receptor Interactions in Biology

Virus-host Receptor Interactions in Biology Abstract Viruses are obligate intracellular parasites and, as such, must penetrate a suitable host cell in order to replicate their genomes and disseminate. Most viruses are limited to a specific set of cells or tissues in which they can successfully replicate, and this may be in one or more particular species. When viruses are able to bind a variety of cells, the pathogenesis and overall effect on the organism may differ. The main determinants of viral tropism differ between different virus families, but in order to take the first, and arguably most important step, in the infection of a host cell, the virus must attach via specific interactions between cell surface molecules and viral proteins. Enveloped viruses usually have proteins embedded in their envelope, assembled at the host cell surface prior to budding. In the case of some viruses (such as HIV-1), these may even consist of cellular proteins from the host cell itself. Non- enveloped viruses are usually internalized in some way and uncoated in an endosome in a pH-dependant manner. Many viruses require a number of cell surface receptors for cell entry, and it is this combination, added to other factors such as replication proteins, that determine whether or not a virus can penetrate and replicated within a certain cell. Introduction As obligate intracellular parasites, the life cycle of viruses depends on an intracellular replication phase and they are thus dependant on living cells. The first essential interaction a virus makes with a host cell is with a cell-surface receptor. A viral receptor may be defined as any cell surface component that mediates recognition of a cell and facilitates entry of the virus and subsequent infection. Receptors serve to ensure infection by overcoming repulsion between the virus and cell. (Baranowski, Flint, Jindrak, modern virol) Cellular receptors are generally proteins, although other types of receptor, such as carbohydrates, may be used (see table 1). These molecules are essential components of the cell or extracellular matrix and functions may include cell adhesion, signalling e.g. chemokine and growth factor receptors. (Baranowski 2003) While some viruses require only one receptor, binding to one cellular receptor alone may not be sufficient for initiation of infection for other viruses. Viruses may bind two or more receptors in sequence in order to initiate endocytosis or membrane fusion. For some viruses, the first contact with a cell is through a low-affinity interaction with a ubiquitous molecule, which allows the primary receptor-virus interaction to take place. The primary receptor is generally unique to certain cells and therefore partly defines the tropism of that particular virus, as cells are rendered susceptible to infection by a certain virus if the receptor required for attachment and entry is present. The primary attachment receptor may induce a conformational change in the viral envelope protein bound, to induce further interaction with the cell. (Modern Virology) A further interaction may then be required to initiate infection, performed by a coreceptor.The definition of the term coreceptor may sometimes be ambiguous, but generally, it is taken to be the molecule that induces fusion or penetration of a cell. This may be a further determinant of tropism, for example the interaction of HIV-1 Virus entry into a cell is the first step in the life0cycle of a virus; various mechanisms of viral cell enrty are shown in figure 1. The mechanism of entry varies between viruses, but all begin with the binding of a cellular receptor by a viral protein. Binding of a cellular receptor may induce endocytosis or formation of an endosome, the acidic environment of which induces uncoating; this may be dependent upon cellular proteins clathrin or caveolin. Enveloped viruses may require an acidic environment that will induce conformational changes in envelope proteins required to induce membrane fusion, while others, including the measles and HIV viruses, can fuse directly with the plasma membrane at neutral pH. (Baranowski) Fusion at the plasma membrane releases the nucelocapsid into the cytoplasm, where the virus can make its way to the nucleus or begin replication in the cytoplasm. The differences in these entry pathways are due to the nature of the molecular interactions between the vi ral components and target-cell receptors, for example, viruses that mimic the natural ligand of receptors for signalling molecules interefere with their signalling to promote viral entry into the cell and spread of infection. (Bomsell) Conformational changes resulting from the binding of a primary receptor that allow the binding of a fusion receptor are a common mechanism among various types of virus, including influenza and HIV type 1, examples and brief description. Similar to Influenza . Multiple receptors could be coreceptors and act together either to modulate each other or to contribute complementary functions. Alternatively, the receptors might act sequentially. Binding of the virus to the first receptor could cause changes in the virus or host that are necessary before the second receptor can bind (50). For those viruses in fluids with flow, such as blood or respiratory secretions, the initial binding must be able to effect rapid docking of the virus to its host cell. (Haywood) As previously stated, some viruses recognise more than one cellular receptor. The same receptor may also be used by more than one type of virus. (see table 1) Often, these are highly abundant in many tissues, for example, heparan sulfate can serve as a receptor for many viruses, including Human immunodefiecieny virus, Hepatitis C and Dengue Virus and as a co-receptor for Herpesviruses (excluding EBV). (ODonnel) CAR, acts as a receptor for both coxsackie and adenoviruses. (Schneider) Table 1 illustrates the diversity of cell surface molecules which viruses have adapted to recognise. Some viruses use more than one type of molecule as a primary receptor e.g. reoviruses bind to the beta-adrenergic receptor as well as NAN. (Flint) While the presence of certain receptors on host cells is vital to initiate infection, these interactions are not always sufficient to explain all aspects of cell, tissue and species tropism. (Flint)(Haywood, Schneider) Binding of a viral protein to a cell surface receptor does not necessarily mean a productive infection will follow, since a co-receptor may be absent or functional domains of the receptor may be blocked. (Baranowski) Absence of specific cytoplasmic or nuclear molecules may hinder the replication of some viruses, despite their permissivity. However, even a non-productive infection may induce pathogenic effects, for example, binding to specific receptor may induce the secretion of cytokines. (Schneider) A virus generally cannot infect a cell successfully in the absence of its specific receptor, so the distribution around the body of the receptor will act as a restriction on the range of tissues that can be infected and hence on the number of systems in the body where sig ns and symptoms of infection might be experienced. (Flint) In the true sense of the word, Tropism refers to the specific cells a particular virus is able to replicate in, although the use of receptor by a virus is increasingly a valid definition in the field of virology. Additional factors the cause viral tropism will not be considered in the context of this essay, although they may be mentioned briefly where relevant, since the focus of this review is the link between specific receptor usage and virus tropism and pathogenesis. (Kuhmann) The primary topics explored here are the virus-receptor interactions with cells that allow viruses to enter cells and initiate infection and how this relates to the tropism of the virus at a cellular and organismal level. I am to demonstrate how viral attachment and entry is often a complicated multi-step process, sometimes requiring many different cell and virus molecules. The viruses largely used to illustrate these points, Human Immunodeficiency Virus type 1 (HIV-1), Influenza A and Herpes Simplex Virus type 1 (HSV-1) are human viruses of medical significance, but the tropism of these particular viruses in other animals, along with other viruses specific to other animals will be discussed where relevant. The structure and genomic organisation of these viruses is irrelevant and is only discussed where it relates to the glycoproteins that interact with cellular receptors. Viruses of plants, fungi and bacteria are not discussed The presence on the cell surface of a protein that has been identified as the receptor for a given virus may not be sufficient for a productive viral infection, and there may be multiple mechanisms behind such restrictions: functional domains of the receptor may be blocked in some cellular context, additional proteins (or other cofactors) may be needed, or cells may exhibit impediments for completion of the infection cycle, despite an initial successful interaction with a functional receptor. HSV- Demonstrates how viruses may use a large number of viral proteins and receptors to bind and enter specific cells. (Hayashi and Yoon) and how the interactions are a complex multi-step process. Influenza multiple steps. binds many cell types Tropism is dependent on other receptors and interactions. Of the many examples, the interaction of  the human influenza A virus hemagglutinin  with N-acetylneuraminic acid, and the ensuing  conformational alterations involved  in pH-dependent membrane fusion, are one  of the best characterized at the structural  and functional levels (11) (Baranowski 2001)  example of proteolytic cleavage to aid spread and pathogenesis. Conformational change required for fusion HIV A well-documented case of use of multiple receptos is that of HIV-1 viruses and related viruses. Illustrates how a virus may use multiple coreceptors to mediate entry to different types of cells and thus influence the tropism of this virus. Uses some of the same receptors as other viruses (parallels between HIV, HSV and influenza) Multi-step process The interaction of the virion with the attachment receptor leads to the first conformational changes in the envelope proteins. This step enables the interaction with co-receptors, or entry mediators and further conformational changes at the plasma membrane. In enveloped viruses (top), this may deliver the energy for the direct fusion of the viral envelope and cellular membrane. Some enveloped and non-enveloped viruses require the low pH in acidic endosomes to induce this conformational change. Enveloped viruses may require the low pH to induce membrane fusion (centre). These mechanisms lead to the release and possibly uncoating of the virus genome, and the initiation of the virus replication cycle. Role of Viral Receptor Destruction While non-enveloped viruses typically undergo relase through cytolysis. Influenza and HIV-1 Viruses also demonstrate the importance of receptor-destroying activity on the infectivity of some viruses. This is imperative for the efficient release and cell-cell spread of the virus by preventing the glycoproteins on the newly-emerged virus from binding to the host cell receptors. It is also important for preventing superinfection of cells by the same or different viruses utilising the same receptor, which may result in cell death. The efficient budding and release of Influenza A virus from the host cell relies on the removal of Sialic Acid residues by Neuraminidase. In contract, the HIV-1 virus gp120 envelope glycoprotein downregulates the CD4 receptor after infection of monocytes, by stimulating TNF-ÃŽÂ ± production. Other cellular mechanisms contribute to down-modulation of CD4, including the gene product Nef, which causes CD4 internalisation respectively. The precursor of gp120 and gp41, gp160, has also been found to bind CD4 intracellularly in the presence of viral protein Vpu, resulting in retention of CD4 in the Endoplasmic Rectilium. Enveloped particles leave the infected cell inconspicuously  by budding and secretion. Nonenveloped viruses  are usually thought to undergo release through cell lysis,  but some may escape by secretory mechanisms after  budding into membrane bound compartments and then  losing their membrane (Altenburg et al., 1980). Others  may subvert cellular autophagy pathways to gain access  to exocytic organelles (Jackson et al., 2005).  (Marsh)

Modern Man Has Become Enslaved by Time :: Argumentative Persuasive Essays

Modern Man Has Become Enslaved by Time In no characteristic is existing society in the West so sharply distinguished from the earlier societies, whether of Europe or the East, than in its conception of time. To the ancient Chinese or Greek, to the Arab herdsman or Mexican peon of today, time is represented by the cyclic processes of nature, the alternation of day and night, the passage from season to season. The nomads and farmers measured and still measure their day from sunrise to sunset, and their year in terms of seedtime and harvest, of the falling leaf and the ice thawing on the lakes and rivers. The farmer worked according to the elements, the craftsman for as long as he felt it necessary to perfect his product. Time was seen as a process of natural change, and men were not concerned in its exact measurement. For this reason civilizations highly developed in other respects had the most primitive means of measuring time: the hour glass with its trickling sand or dripping water, the sun dial, useless on a dull day, and the candle or lamp whose unburnt remnant of oil or wax indicated the hours. All these devices were approximate and inexact, and were often rendered unreliable by the weather or the personal laziness of the tender. Nowhere in the ancient or mediaeval world were more than a tiny minority of men concerned with time in the terms of mathematical exactitude. Modern, western man, however, lives in a world that runs according to the mechanical and mathematical symbols of clock time. The clock dictates his movements and inhibits his actions. The clock turns time from a process of nature into a commodity that can be measured and bought and sold like soap or sultanas. And because, without some means of exact time keeping, industrial capitalism could never have developed and could not continue to exploit the workers, the clock represents an element of mechanical tyranny in the lives of modern men more potent than any individual exploiter or than any other machine. It is therefore valuable to trace the historical process by which the clock influenced the social development of modern European civilization. It is a frequent circumstance of history that a culture or civilization develops the device that will later be used for its destruction.